全球木炭供应链的环境踪迹
Charcoal production in a forest in Tekirdag, Turkey.
在本发明的发明中的发明之后几十年，在世界各地的一代人中，人们预计传统能源的需求和用法如木炭，直接从森林资源获得。
然而，我们的研究shows that in some African economies, charcoal demand continues to surpass demand for electricity in cooking even where grid connections are prevalent. In some major cities, including Kampala, people still use charcoal as the default fuel for cooking, preferring to use electricity for overhead lighting, entertainment and light tasks such as ironing. Moreover, In Europe and North America, where charcoal demand is less conspicuous, this energy source is still remarkably relevant as an imported fuel for leisure activities, such as barbecues.
Over the past two decades, global charcoal production has increased from 37 million tons in 2000 to 51.2 million tons in 2017. Regrettably, some of the world’s top charcoal producers, in particular Egypt, Ethiopia and Nigeria, do not have vast forest resources in relation to their total land area (see Figure 1 below). This supply chain is sustained in part by global demand for this fuel.
Why the higher rate of consumption? For one, consumers have limited information about the sources of raw materials and production practices. Secondly, there is limited awareness of charcoal’s side effects, such as the release of carbon monoxide and its direct link to high死亡，特别是在撒哈拉以南非洲，室内烹饪仍然猖獗。
为什么木炭生产中的大量森林损失持续存在
与许多森林的商品一样，木炭的生产涉及上游砍伐的密集树。是什么使得这种供应链独特的是热解，低氧气条件下的日志的高温变换，大多是基本的，并且在许多撒哈拉国家涉及在森林地区内的地球窑中设置开放式火灾，从而增加了野火的风险。
莫reover, there is limited tracking and documentation of the amount of vegetation withdrawn because trees are cut sporadically on private land, and material inputs are not measured.
而许多供应链正在踏上贵族和有价值的挑战森林保存为减少森林损失对其产品的需求造成的影响，例如通过私人土地上的认证和森林保护耗材，不幸的是，由于各种原因，不幸的是在木炭供应链中不常用于炭链供应链Because producers do not necessarily have legal ownership of the land where tree felling and production occur, they feel a limited obligation to plant new trees or preserve forests.
首先，我们发现，撒哈拉以南非洲的许多生产商是游牧民族的，因为该过程不需要复杂的固定基础设施（图2）。生产者将树木变成木炭附近树木成长的地方，然后继续寻找新植被。
由于生产者不一定具有树木砍伐和生产的土地的法律所有权，因此植物植物或保护森林的有限义务，因为这个职责通常落在土地所有者身上。土地所有者可能允许木炭燃烧，以便为商业农业或企业家保留土地，以维持下游贸易的唯一所有权。
Secondly, the charcoal supply chain is mostly informal, with limited documentation or tracking of raw materials and inventory. This means consumers are not informed about the nature and source of the charcoal they purchase in final markets.
According to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), there are significant gaps in knowledge about the precise origin of trees that supply charcoal in the international market place, although some WWF findings indicate that "barbecue fuel" in Germany is sourced from Poland, Nigeria and other tropical rainforests.
伐木和生产可能是非法的，在树木被源于树木，然而，在非正式市场中，该产品的条形码是不存在的，以支持对可持续性努力的原材料和产品跟踪。必威体育2018
莫re innovation is needed at the cooking level (opportunities for cleaner and low-cost cooking)
木炭生产本质上是有问题的，因为热解释放出危险的气体，包括甲烷，二氧化碳和一氧化碳，从而影响基地窑窑周围的空气质量。
此外，生产现场的植被大量损失也意味着较少的树木捕获和螯合在大气中的二氧化碳。具有高随机性在生产者的技能和树木品种中，用于制造木炭，可怜的热解是常见的，导致利用遗弃的木材废弃物，以及低质量的木炭，特别是当日志具有高的SAP内容时。
劣质木炭的副作用在消费方面更为明显。炭布广泛用于烹饪产生烟雾和烟雾（图3），导致用户通过眼睛刺激和咳嗽的不适，并通过吸入松散的粉尘（颗粒物）和致命一氧化碳产生风险。
现代替代品存在的木炭
木炭在当地和国际市场的商品中的不屈不挠的存在主要可以归功于与现代替代品相比的负担能力，如电力和天然气。我们发现，非洲城市中心的17-23美元之间的典型木炭（71-94英寸高）的成本在Kampala;这个金额可以持续到一个月。
相比之下，本地电力关税for domestic use is $0.068 per kilowatt-hour, and the total cost of cooking tends to be higher depending on food types and length of time it takes to prepare food.
The overall usage rate for both energy alternatives, which determines final cost to consumers, usually depends on variables such as family size and the amount of time spent cooking, which is sometimes determined by the type of food.解决热带地区的森林退化以及普遍获得电力的发展战略，特别是在撒哈拉以南非洲，需要强烈了解木炭。
Nonetheless, costs incurred in cooking depend on various situations, and consumers’ fuel choices also can be determined by the amount of disposable income. In other cases, charcoal is favorably linked to the taste of food, compared to the more convenient alternatives, which means that consumers that can afford to pay for electricity in these economies still opt to use charcoal.
Conclusion
解决热带地区森林退化的基本问题，以及发展普遍获得电力的战略，特别是在撒哈拉以南非，需要对木炭的基于事实的理解 - 无论是一个能源和积极的商品。与现代电力竞争。
能源investment strategies and technological innovation also should be focused on alternatives for safer cooking. Such developments would reduce the devastating health impacts, especially in economies that still heavily rely on charcoal fuel. Consumer education about the side effects of charcoal to human health and related supply chain issues, such as origin of trees and risks of deforestation, is also needed.
